Hardins Argument Concerning Lifeboat Ethics Essay

Hardins Argument Concerning Lifeboat Ethics - Essay Example He also illustrates this fact with the example of a farmer, who cannot allow any more cattle in his meadow than its carrying capacity justifies. He argues that if a pasture is open to all, the right to use it will not be matched by a corresponding responsibility to protect it and it is not possible to expect everyone to use it with discretion. "In a crowded world of less than perfect human beings, mutual ruin is inevitable if there are no controls. This is the tragedy of the commons." (Hardin) Therefore, Hardin establishes his concept of 'the tragedy of the commons' in a highly convincing manner with ample illustrations and explanations and he maintains that an important task of education today should be the creation of an acute awareness of the dangers of the commons. One of the most significant interpretations of the arguments of Hardin concerning 'the tragedy of the commons' was offered by De Young in his article "Tragedy of the commons", in which the author comes up with serious criticisms of Hardin's arguments. According to De Young, Garrett Hardin's concept of the 'tragedy of the commons' has been important in understanding how humanity has come at the brink of several environmental catastrophes. He maintains that the dangerous situations in human life are the creations of the innocent behaviors of many individuals acting alone.

Social Media Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Social Media - Research Paper Example Social media, however, brings about pervasive and substantial advancements to communicate between individuals, communities, and organizations. Despite the broad used of social media, it has disadvantages as well as the advantages it has brought into communication. This research paper discusses various perspectives concerning social media, its growth, advantages, and disadvantages it has brought to the current generation. Social media is different from industrial/traditional media in a number of ways including, reach, usability, quality, frequency, permanence, and immediacy (Mandiberg, 2012). Studies depict that, there are many positive and negative effects, which stem from social media usage. Such studies show that many people spend more time on social media sites than the time they spend on other internet sites (Gupta, Brooks & Vines, 2013). Simultaneously, the total time that Americans spent on social media networks using computers and portable devices increased by thirty-seven per cent to an approximate of hundred and twenty-one billion minutes in the year 2012, with comparison of eighty-eight billion in the year 2011 (Mandiberg, 2012). ... The mobile food owner was not interested in using social media networks. Afterwards, he decided to give Twitter a try. Using this social media network as an advertising tool, he was able to keep his customers up to date about his new location, new types of food, and special offers of each day. Because of using social media networks to advertise his business, his sales gradually increased since he was able to reach new and a large group of customers more easily. This means that social media is useful to the US people since entrepreneurs are now able to advertise their business at a low cost advertising approach hence increase their sales through offline and online marketing. Many business owners are currently making use of social media networks as a means of advertising their businesses. This is through posting business blogs and uploading product’s images on various social media applications as well as creating business websites. Friedman (2011) tries to show how social media networks have really contributed to the advancement of many businesses across the world. Mangle & Zaveri (2013) article explains how social media has resulted reputation building, career opportunities, and increase of monetary income. The article talks about a case study of how the current large private and public companies employ social media to engage and attract new customers. Students at a certain college use the case study to determine the issues that social media can bring to the world. The students use social media in their project to teach them how to determine goals and for planning a supportive strategy to help them reach their goals. Mangle & Zaveri (2013) try to outline that, social media poses more advantages to

Religion in Ancient China Essay Example for Free

Religion in Ancient China Essay The earliest information found about religion in ancient China is during the Shang Dynasty and so religion in the Xia dynasty remains unknown. Religious beliefs and rituals were prominent during the Shang Dynasty. The most significant deity was Shang Ti, Ti meaning ‘Deity Above’ or the ‘Lord on High’. He ruled as a supreme god over all the other gods and spirits. The gods and spirits were believed to symbolize objects found in nature; the sun, the moon, the wind, the rain, everything from mountains and rivers to the stars in the night sky. Ti is believed to have punished those who disobeyed or offended him and rewarded those who pleased him. It is said that Ti formed a noble court in heaven consisting of all deceased worthy ancestors. The Chinese’s belief in family harmony was associated to belief in the afterlife. The ancestors who were considered commendable served Ti, helping him govern the world. Ancestors were also worshipped and were said to act a mediators between the gods and humankind. It was thought that if ancestors were appropriately honoured, respected, and provided for, they would promote the familys prosperity. A favour or grievance to a member of the family was considered a favour or grievance to the ancestors; consequently, people were reluctant to offense or harm descendants of a powerful family. It was believed that in the afterlife they would live in a celestial court in many ways similar to their earthly courts. Each Chinese family was expected to have an ancestral shrine in the centre of their home to honour and venerate their ancestors. Sacrifice to the gods and the ancestors were also a major part of the Shang religion. When a ruler died, slaves and officials were sacrificed with them in order to guarantee that their afterlife would be the same or similar as their life on earth. People were also sacrificed in smaller numbers when significant events, such as the founding of a palace or temple, took place. Along with their deceased ancestors, the Chinese had people on earth who acted as mediators between the celestials and the human race. Priests were among these intermediates and were responsible for a number of tasks including reading prayers and overseeing sacrifices and funerals. An augur is another type of mediator, responsible for asking gods questions on behalf of humans using various practices of foretelling to unearth the answers. The use of oracle bones was the most notable form of divination. The augur would ask the question, punching holes into the bone, usually the shoulder-bone from an ox, and in some cases the shell of a tortoise. The bone would then be held over a fire, until cracks appeared. These cracks would be made more evident by rubbing ink over the bone. The augur could now read the cracks and determine the answer of the god. Records of the questions and answers of readings were engraved on the bone. Questions on these oracle bones included issues of weather, warfare, agriculture, hunting, childbirth, and sacrifice. In reflection with their agricultural nature, the ancient Chinese use to honour the local deities of soil in order to increase the fertility of earth and to promote the growth of crops. Over time, this practice of earth worship began to dwindle and the veneration of Heaven increased. Divination was considered the only way to determine the requests and future actions of the ruler of Heaven who was also seen as a kind of ancestral figure. The Chinese were animistic and so believed that nature had many spirits. Good spirits, referred to as shen, and bad spirits, referred to as gui, were both thought to dwell in Heaven and Earth. The sun and the rooster were believed to have authority over the gui. This concept of shen and gui later influenced the formation of the yin and yang concept. The people of ancient China believed that there were two contrasting forces abiding in everything in nature; that is yin and yang. This concept was thought to be formed with the influence of the shen and gui concept from earlier ancient China. Yin is characterized as slow, soft, yielding, diffuse, cold, wet, or tranquil; and is associated with water, earth, the moon, femininity and nighttime. Yang, on the other hand, is fast, hard, solid, focused, hot, dry, or aggressive; and is associated with fire, sky, the sun, masculinity and daytime. During the time of the Eastern Zhou, religion in China underwent an evolution. The early gods were forgotten and replaced with ideologies that worked as both philosophies and religions. A phenomenon called the ‘Contention of a Hundred Schools of Thought’ took place in ancient China. Schools and philosophers flourished around this time and it was dubbed an era of great cultural and intellectual expansion in China. The four most prominent schools of thought that evolved during this epoch were Confucianism, Taoism, Mohism, and Legalism. Confucius was born 551 BC and grew up to become one of the most influential philosophers in Chinese history. Confucianism is a composite philosophy of moral, social, political, philosophical, and quasi-religious thought. He built his philosophy around five virtues: compassion, morality, decorum, wisdom and honesty. Compassion was considered the cornerstone, symbolizing loyalty, filial piety, patience and benevolence. He also believed that everyone should be in harmony with one another and establish a society ruled by standard etiquette and conduct. A legendary philosopher by the name of Laozi is believed to have established the religious philosophy of Taoism. The ‘forces of nature’ is the central belief behind the concept of Tao, which is literally translated as the path or the way. Taoism is in many ways the contrary of Confucianism, focusing on the individual within the natural realm rather than the individual within society. It also focuses on the affiliation between humanity and the cosmos, vigour and long life, and wu wei, that is action through inaction, which is said to create harmony with the Universe. Mo Di or Mozi was another Chinese philosopher form the Eastern Zhou period. He was strongly opposed to the teachings of Confucianism and Taoism. Mohism was based on the idea of universal love, ‘everyone is equal before heaven’. Mozi believed that everyone should practice communal love in order to create a heaven on earth. He also believed that an individual’s perception should be the basis of human cognition and not imagination or logic. Mozi advocated abstinence, and therefore opposed music, regarding it as excessive and a waste of resources which could instead be used to help those in need of basic necessities such as food, water and shelter. He even opposed elaborate funerals also regarding it as a waste of money which could be used in more useful matters. He also advocated pacifism thus disapproving of offensive war, only accepting aggressive action to defend the weak. Legalism, while the term itself was invented in the Han dynasty, was one of the major doctrines followed during the Contention of a Hundred Schools of Thought. It was established by Han Feizi and Li Si and theorizes that the human race is evil and in order to prevent this evil causing chaos, laws need to be put in place. Legalism wasn’t concerned with the nature or purpose of life, not even the welfare of the public; rather it sought the states prosperity and military aptitude. Out of these four philosophies, only Confucianism and Taoism are considered religions by scholars, as only they contain spiritual elements. Confucianism and Taoism both became part of what is now known as The Three Doctrine. Buddhism is the third doctrine however it was imported from India and flourished during Imperial China.

Isotope Coded Affinity Tag: Applications and Benefits

Isotope Coded Affinity Tag: Applications and Benefits Proteomics is a vital and necessary branch of science targeted at the in-depth study of proteins and their structure to understand their function; as an important pharmacological tool in drug discovery and drug development. The most widely used analytical approach to protein separation and quantification, usually involves integrating protein separation by 2D polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis with micro capillary reverse phase-liquid chromatography protein identification; and finally, detection by mass spectrometry. However, the presence of limitations such as the lack of automation and high costs associated within the combination technique led to the research and introduction of a better and more reliable technique involving the use of isotope coded affinity tags (ICAT). This report looks at the history of isotope coded affinity tags, its advantages over 2D electrophoretic techniques, the principles associated with the technique, its development over the years and finally its application and contribution to the growth and development of analytical science. It also aims to comment on future developmental routes for the technology. TABLE OF CONTENTS (Jump to) A. Background B. Introduction to protein quantification B.1. 2D Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis B.2. Reverse Phase High Liquid Chromatography B.3. Mass Spectrometry B.4. Problems associated with 2DLC-MS combination technique C. Introduction to Isotope Coded Affinity Tags (ICATs)   C.1. Major advancements in isotope coded affinity tag approach D. Principles of Isotope Coded Affinity Tags (ICATs) D.1. Protein Sampling D.2. ICAT reagent Tagging D.3. Peptide Isolation D.4. Protein quantification D.5. Peptide identification E. Applications of Isotope Coded Affinity Tags (ICATs) E.1. Applications in the quantitative identification of cancer  biomarkers E.2. Applications in the quantification of antimalarial drugs  and their metabolites in biological fluids E.3. Quantification of protein expression in oxidative-stressed liver  cells as a therapeutic target for the treatment of liver disease E.4. Quantitative analysis of defaulted proteins present in the brain as  a therapeutic target for the treatment of brain diseases E.5. Applications in the proteomic analysis of recombinant proteins F. Future Development of Isotope Coded Affinity Tags (ICATs) BACKGROUND Proteins are very important components of biologically active systems and some of their functions include structural foundation (connective tissue), transportation (carrier proteins) or immunity (antibodies). Specific and selective protein-protein interactions within the body are the basis for key metabolic and kinetic pathways within living organisms. A disruption in a specific proteins interaction and function, leading to a small or large interference in the subsequent metabolic pathway within the body due to any number of reasons; is the major cause of disease which if not dealt with, can lead to fatality. For this reason, Proteomics is a vital and necessary branch of science targeted at the in-depth study of proteins and their structures; to understand their function as an important pharmacological tool in drug discovery and drug development. Developments in proteomics and genomics over the years through quantitative-structure activity relationship (QSAR) studies and computer aid ed drug design (CADD), has helped to identify novel drugs and their targets for action. INTRODUCTION TO PROTEIN QUANTIFICATION The use of Isotope coded affinity tags as a protein quantification method in proteomics was first developed in 1999 by Aebersold et al. to aid the detection and purification of recombinant proteins[1]. Before the research done in 1999, most widely used approaches to protein quantification were done by 2D Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis (2D PAGE) combined with micro-capillary Liquid reversed phase liquid chromatography (2DLC) and novel electrospray ionization (ESI-MS) or tandem mass spectrometry (MS-MS) technique for detection [2]. B.1. 2D POLYACRYLAMIDE GEL ELECTROPHORESIS This is because 2D Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis (2D PAGE) is very well known for its sensitivity and high resolving separation power. It is also a highly adaptable technique, and its resourcefulness makes it highly sort after for the separation of biological molecules including proteins, based on both physiochemical properties and other chemical-specific interactions. The limit of detection is well documented to a resolution of more than 7000 macromolecules in a singular separation. A large variety and combination of solvents and additives can be used with 2D-PAGE electrophoretic technique to ensure analytes solubility within complex protein mixtures. B.2. REVERSE PHASE LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY The inclusion of liquid chromatography as a second separation step also allows for the further separation of the protein mixtures based on difference in retention properties of the components. Recent breakthrough in the analytical approach to liquid chromatography involves the used of two HPLC pumps connected through a detailed 6-port valve system; which results in a more comprehensive separation by gradient elution of complex protein mixtures at high speed and quick run times. B.3. MASS SPECTROMETRY Finally, a mass spectrometric technique (Electrospray ionization (EIMS) or tandem mass spectrometry (MSMS)) which provides a UV detection of protein and measures the mass to charge ratios of the eluted peptides is employed. The detector produces a comprehensive chromatogram by plotting UV signals against their corresponding reverse phase retention times, and then the ESI-MS/MS-MS provides mass information for the eluted peptides. Figure 2: The construction of a 2DLC column and its interface with mass spectrometry. (A) A pressure bomb is used for column packing and sample loading. (B) The flow rate of in the 2-D column is controlled at 100-300 nL/min, and ESI is achieved by applying 2 kV to the gold wire.[4 5] B.4. PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH THE 2DLC-MS COMBINATION TECHNIQUE However, in spite of the popularity of the combination technique, a number of limitations exist that makes the technique far from perfect. It has been documented that complex proteins and peptides with very high alkalinity or basicity and some trans-membrane proteins cannot be separated by this combination method. Also during total cell analysis, the combinatorial technique was found to readily accommodate highly abundant protein separation with the lower abundant proteins being scarcely detected. The over process also requires several sequential stages including difficult techniques such as in-gel digestion; making the combination technique highly labour intensive, difficult to automate and hence non-cost effective. This called for a further development in proteomic research to overcome these problems by possibly avoiding the separation step by electrophoresis and hence the introduction of the use of novel Isotope coded affinity tags (ICAT). INTRODUCTION TO ISOTOPE CODED AFFINITY TAGS The approach of isotope coded affinity tagging mainly combined with a form of high performance liquid chromatography and tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) is a relatively new and improved method used in proteomics for the precise quantification and identification of protein sequences within simple or complex protein mixtures. It has been documented to be simpler as it is capable of directly quantifying the proteins from complex mixtures, eliminating the electrophoretic stage. This makes isotope coded affinity tagging more efficient, easily-automated and hence a lot less labour and cost intensive than the electrophoretic process. The use of ICAT is the new and preferred analytical method for protein quantification. Isotope coded affinity tagging is based on a class of chemical reagents called Isotope coded affinity tags (ICAT). The ICAT reagent occurs in two forms depending on the number of deuteriums; light containing none or heavy containing eight. ICAT reagents are made up of three major functional units: A distinct chemically reactive group responsible for the selective labelling of the SH groups of thiol (cysteine) residues, An isotope coded linker responsible for the soluble properties of the reagent and it also provides a site for the addition of the isotopic label, And a biotin affinity tag used to achieve protein isolation and identification. It depends on the principle of strong binding interaction of biotin and avidin. C 1. MAJOR ADVANCEMENTS IN ISOTOPE CODED AFFINITY TAG LABELLING Since the technique was initially introduced in 1999 for the labelling of protein mixtures at low levels, there have been valuable technological advancements in the approach using isotope coded affinity tags (ICATs) within the pharmaceutical industry. These include: The design and modification of affinity tags to improve on the chromatographic separation process. [25] The use of variable peptide specific affinity tags to maximise large-scale quantification on individual processes. [25] An introduction to the combination of different tags to achieve maximum proteome industry [21] The use of exopeptidases to efficiently remove the affinity tags from the peptides in the purification stage [22, 23] D. PRINCIPLES OF ISOTOPE CODED AFFINITY TAG (ICAT) APPROACH Isotope coded affinity tags are used for identifying and quantifying the protein content of two different cell states or population within a mixture. The technique is based largely on two concepts: The peptide sequence of the protein to be quantified (between 5-25 Amino acids long) contains sufficient information to identify that unique protein. And those peptides tagged with the light and heavy reagents respectively are chemically identical and hence serve as very ideal internal standards for quantification. Figure 4. A schematic diagram for the ICAT approach to protein quantification. The principles of Isotope coded affinity tags as documented by Aebersold et al. are divided into four stages: Sampling, Tagging, Isolation and Quantification. D.1. PROTEIN SAMPLING Firstly, two different protein samples containing reduced cysteine (thiol) side chains are individually derived; by breaking down the cell structure, and isolating and extracting the proteins required from the cell. D.2. ICAT REAGENT TAGGING For one of the protein samples, the light form of the ICAT reagent (containing zero deuterium) is introduced to covalently bind to the SH cysteine residues; whilst for the other, the heavy form of ICAT reagent (containing eight deuterium) is used. The individual labelled mixtures represent different cell states or populations. The two samples are then combined into one complex protein mixture and a protease enzyme is added to cut-up or cleave the larger protein molecules into tagged smaller peptides fragments. D.3. PEPTIDE ISOLATION Avidin is then introduced to the mixture to act as a magnet and due to the strong and highly specific binding interaction of biotin and avidin, the ICAT-tagged peptides are isolated from the mixture through affinity chromatography. The isolated peptides are then analysed and separated by micro-capillary high performance liquid chromatography- mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS). D.4. PROTEIN QUANTIFICATION This is the most important step of the analytical process as the quantity and sequence identity of the proteins from which the tagged peptides originated, are automatically determined. Quantification is achieved by comparing the integrated peak intensities for simultaneously eluted pairs of identical, doubly charged peptide ions. The pair corresponds to the two different forms of the ICAT reagent with the mass spectrometer running successively in two modes. One mode measures the comparative fragmenting of peptides eluting from the micro-capillary column whilst the other records the sequence information of the tagged peptides in the same molar ratios as the corresponding proteins. This also means that the chemically identical ICAT-labelled peptide ions are readily identified because as they co-elute, they differ in mass-to-charge (m/z) ratio because of an 8 deuterium difference in the mass of the ICAT-reagents. D.5. PEPTIDE IDENTIFICATION The final stage of isotope coded affinity tagging involves an automated correlation with protein sequence data banks using algorithms and permutations, to identify the protein from which the sequenced peptide originated and hence identify the protein. A combination of all results generated on the chromatogram by the mass spectrometer; and analysis of the ICAT reagent-labelled peptides therefore determines the relative quantities as well as the sequence identities of the components of protein mixtures in a single automated operation. In mass spectrometry, the ratios between the intensities of the lower and upper mass components of these pairs of peaks provide an accurate measure of the relative abundance of the peptides (and hence the proteins) in the original cell pools because the MS intensity response to a given peptide is independent of the isotopic composition of the ICAT reagents. E. APPLICATIONS OF ISOTOPE CODED AFFINITY TAGS The use of ICAT reagent -labelled internal standards, has now become a common and fundamental practice in quantitative mass spectrometry. It has been researched to great advantage in a number of different fields of biochemistry. E.1. Quantitative identification of Cancer biomarkers [9,10] Analytical methods that employ isotope coded affinity tags are very useful and hence popular in the development of high throughput approach to early cancer detection in humans. [9]The significant quantification and identification of cancer biomarkers using ICAT reagents is a therapeutic target for cancer treatment. In this case, protein samples containing cancerous and non-cancerous cells are denatured and reduced to expose the cysteine -SH peptide residues contained. They can then subsequently labelled with the light or heavy forms of isotope coded affinity tags in vivo using stable isotopic labelling (SILAC; (e.g., 2H, 13C, 15N, and 18O)) or in vitro using isobaric tags (iTRAQ). This approach allows expressed proteins and peptides in malignant, cancer-derived cells to be compared with non-cancerous cells.[8] The use of labelled peptides as internal standards allows for relative and/or absolute estimation and quantification of the abundance of the differential proteins present. Emer ging technologies such as the use of protein microarrays are opportunities presently being researched and developed for future improvements in cancer biomarker identification. [10] E.2. Quantification of antimalarial drugs and their metabolites in biological fluids [7] Malaria is a deadly disease responsible for millions of deaths every year, in many tropical and developing countries. Antimalarial drugs such as chloroquine, mefloquine and pyrimethamine and their metabolites; interact with specific dihydrofolate enzymatic sites in plasmodium falciparum malaria. Since enzymes are largely made up of proteins, many enzymatic functions are made up of peptide peptide interactions. Isotope coded affinity tagging combined with high performance liquid chromatography has been documented by Kalpesh N. P. et al, 2010 [7] to be a reliable method for the selective determination and quantification of these potent antimalarial drugs in biological fluids. ICAT reagents are very useful in the extraction stage of the antimalarial drug from a biological matrix as they provide high peptide selectivity and specificity, to avoid interference from multiple antimalarial combination, or endogenous peptides that exist within the matrix. The use of the ICAT approach has grea tly aided research and development into the pharmacokinetics of different antimalarial drugs especially Chloroquine.[7,8] E.3. Quantification of protein expression in oxidative-stressed liver cells as a therapeutic target for the treatment of liver disease [12] A major pathogenic event recurrent in several variations of liver diseases in humans, involves oxidative stress of the liver caused by the formation of reactive oxygen species. Hepatocytes normally have mechanisms responsible for the regulation of oxidative and anti-oxidative molecules within the cell. However, the presence of reactive oxygen species in the liver affects major cellular components including cell proteins, and eventually, the cells regulatory ability. This leads to metabolic or proliferative liver disease and eventual cell fatality.[13] Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are largely represented by mitochondria and cytochrome P450 enzymes in liver cells. The expression of certain protein molecules termed as biomarkers within oxidative-stressed liver cells, and their subsequent quantification using ICAT reagents, can enable an early detection of liver disease. It can also allow for the progressive monitoring of liver damage as a therapeutic target to the treatment of liver disease.[15] E.4. Quantitative analysis of defaulted proteins present in the brain as a therapeutic target for the treatment of brain diseases. The brain is a very complex structure, vital to the existence of mankind. However, a lot of the underlying mechanisms responsible for the normal function and mis-function of the brain have not been fully researched. Research into quantitatively characterising the human brain proteome and using the analysis to understand important cell signalling mechanisms [16], is a very important area of neuropoteomics (i.e. proteomic research and development). The large scale use of stable isotope coded affinity tags in quantitative analysis of complex brain matrixes has helped to provide internal standards for relevant peptides that are chemically similar but isotopically different. These internal standards can be used to correctly identify important biomarkers present in the brain as in epilepsy[17]; or absent biomarkers as in the pathogenesis of Parkinsons disease[18]. E.5. Applications in the proteomic analysis of recombinant proteins High-throughput approaches to the quantification and identification of proteins, is widely applied in the industrial synthesis of therapeutic enzymes. [19] Proteomic analysis on most recombinant proteins, struggle with very low yields and poor solubility which greatly affects the ability to achieve high-throughput protein purification. Quantitative methods that employ isotope coded affinity tags have been documented to be the only way to achieve selective high-throughput protein purification with improved yields, solubility and folding of the recombinant protein, during the process [19]. This is because, purification processes by biotin affinity normal resulting in great yields of over 90%, making it very economically favourable. Combinations of two or more isotopic tags are typically needed to make the most of high-throughput screening.[1] THE FUTURE OF ISOTOPE CODED AFFINITY TAGS (ICATs) The main application area of isotope coded affinity approach is in the identification of biomarkers as a therapeutic target for disease treatment and prevention. The future of analytical techniques that use Isotope coded affinity tags for peptide-labelling includes:

Essay on the Dark Side of the Mind Exposed in Cask of Amontillado

The Dark Side of the Mind Exposed in Cask of Amontillado "A wrong is unredressed when retribution overtakes its redresser. It is equally unredressed when the avenger fails to make himself felt as such to him who has done the wrong." With that statement, Montresor begins his tale of revenge deciding that the act must be slow and sweet and that in order to fully enjoy it, his adversary must be aware of his intentions. Hidden within those same few lines, lies not only this horrid plan, but also the true interest of its' true author. In his Cask of Amontillado, Edgar Allen Poe reveals his supreme interest in the dark side of the human mind and heart. Much of what a story means, much of its effect on the reader depends on the eyes through which it is seen and on the voice that tells it to us. In Cask of Amontillado, those eyes and voice belong to Montresor. The story is written in second-person perspective. In relaying the events of the day, Montresor refers to the reader as 'you' several times. This does not only act to pull the reader into the story, but it also provides a valuable insight into the mind of the author. By referring to the reader as 'you' a connection is established between Montresor and the reader. This connection suggests that the reader can sympathize with the actions of Montresor by relating them to some event in the readers' past or imagination. Poe suggests that we, as a body of readers, all want to commit acts such as that committed by Montresor and therefore can understand him and his dark actions. To fully understand the dark side of the human mind and heart, the mind of Montresor has to be examined. The question as to what fiendishly evil act Fortunato committed that was so seve... ...each step, Montresor pulls Fortunato in a little further by provoking him with threats of getting his archenemy Luchresi to test the wine. Without breaking from his calm shell, Montresor is able to lead Fortunato to his doom never once faltering or stumbling. In his Cask of Amontillado, Poe dives into a study of the darkness of the human mind and heart. He looks at the worst crime possibly committed by one human to another and ponders over the mind of the criminal. Montresor, calm, cool, and collected, is able to fulfill a plan that he had made long before. Fifty years later, he conveys the story to the world so that the dark side of all people may be matched against that of him. A man that truly lives by the motto of his family, "nemo me impune lacessit" [no one provokes me with impunity], Montresor becomes a study for Poe and a mirror to all mankind.

French and Russian Revolutions :: European Europe History

French and Russian Revolutions Both the French and Russian revolutions occurred because of two main reasons. Both of these revolutions were the direct results of bad leadership and a bad economy. These two reasons along with other factors caused both of these revolutions. Although they were both similar, they also had differences. A difference between the two is that the Russians had an unsuccessful "pre-revolution" in 1905. Another difference between these two revolutions is the fact that the French turned towards a democracy while the Russian government became communist. In 1905 , Russia had a prerevolution that was put down of the Czar. Instead of learning from this prerevolution, Czar Nicholas II, made a very big mistake by in not introducing some reforms to correct the problems. So because of his actions, the situation grew worse. In 1917, the Russians were fighting in World War I. A good majority of the Russian people were weary and uncontent with the way the war was going and with the Czar's rule. This uncontent along with economic hardships caused riots and demonstrations to break out. The Czar called for the army to put down the revolution as they did in 1905. But the army joined the revolt and the Czar was kicked out of power soon afterwards. A temporary government was set up to decide on what kind of government Russia was gonna set up. Two political parties were set up. The Bolsheviks were one of the two. The leader of the Bolshevik party was a man named Lenin. Lenin was a firm believer of the theories and ideas of Karl Marx. So with his slo gan of "Bread, Peace and Land", Lenin gained the support of the peasants and gained control of Russia and setup a communist state. The French revolution was also caused by a bad ruler and a bad economy. During the early 1780's a big percent of annual budget went towards king Louis XVI's lavish estate at Versailles. France also had no central bank, no paper currency, no ways of getting more money, and an out-dated tax system which only taxed the poor who had no money to begin with. Signs of revolution first appeared when the peasants stormed the fortress known as the Bastille looking for gun powder. The Bastille incident set off revolts all over France and Louis was soon deposed afterwards.A democratic goverment was setup in place of the old monarcy.

Political Justice: Plato and Aristotle Essay

Plato and Aristotle had different ideas of politics and political justice. In The Republic, Plato creates the ideal city, which is needed to guarantee justice. He aims to create a peaceful united city that will lead to the greater good of the community and individuals. Unlike Plato who imagines the ideal city, Aristotle looks at actual cities in The Politics. He doesn’t want to create the ideal city; he aims to improve the existing city. While their ideas about politics and justice were different, they both strived to find a better way of life for society and hoped to achieve political justice. In order to define justice, Socrates attempts to create an ideal city, one that is healthy and just. Socrates begins by â€Å"investigating what justice looks like in the cities† in order to â€Å"go on to consider it in individuals† (Plato, 45). He believes that it is through speech that one will see the way in which both justice and injustice come into being. Socrates argues that people come together as partners and form cities based on mutual needs because â€Å"each [person] isn’t self-sufficient but is in need of much†: food, shelter, clothing, and other necessities (Plato, 46). It is in the need that the men have of one another in a healthy city that justice can be found (Plato, 49). In the Republic, Plato argues that justice is social, structural, and peaceful. He also believes that people function best doing one thing well. According to Socrates, people naturally differ in nature; â€Å"different men are apt for the accomplishment of different jobs† (Plato, 46). Socrates argues for specialization by saying, â€Å"one man, one art† (Plato, 47). He argues that this concept of specialization is the only way to make certain that each job is done well. Socrates goes on to divide the city into three distinct classes: producers, warriors, and rulers. Socrates believes a just city requires a division of labor in order to guarantee the stability of the city and provide the common good for the citizens. He states that, â€Å"each thing becomes more plentiful, finer, and easier, when one man, exempt from other tasks, does one thing according to nature† (Plato, 47). A strict division of labor is the only way to construct a just city, in which few laws are required. Socrates uses the analogy of the healthy city to describe how â€Å"justice and injustice naturally grow in cities† (Plato, 49). A healthy city becomes an unhealthy, â€Å"feverish† city when people become driven by desire and want more than the mere necessities of a healthy city. Some people will not be satisfied with the mere necessities; thus, relishes will be added. When people desire more and more luxuries, the city must be made bigger again and again because the healthy one is no longer adequate (Plato, 50). As the city grows, more land is required in order to be sufficient. At some point, one must â€Å"cut off a piece of [their] neighbors’ land† (Plato, 50). Socrates argues that encroachment will ultimately lead to war. He goes on to state that because of thisß inevitable war, the city will require Guardians. According to Socrates, the Guardians of the state must have a very spirited soul be very well trained (Plato, 52). He goes on to argue that a good Guardian must be â€Å"a philosopher in nature, spirited, swift, and strong† (Plato, 53). They must never turn against the city and must know whom to do violence to. Therefore, â€Å"[the Guardians] must be gentle to their own and cruel to enemies† (Plato, 52). To ensure that they will never turn against the city, Socrates believes that they must be educated morally â€Å"in speech† through the stories of the Gods and heroes (Plato, 54). Socrates argues that the tales should be supervised and modified if need be, in order to instill the idea that Gods can do no wrong. Only the stories that display bravery and dispel the fear of death should be taught to the Guardians. As a citizen, a Guardian must defend their city, make war together against any enemy of the city, and fight vigilantly for one another. While Plato believed that cities and state came into being because of mutual needs and social contracts, Aristotle thought otherwise. Aristotle views the polis, or city, as a political association or partnership. Aristotle opens The Politics by saying, â€Å"every city is some sort of partnership†, which â€Å"is constituted for the sake of some good.† According to Aristotle, the city must seek to achieve â€Å"the most authoritative good of all† (Aristotle, 35). He defines villages as collections of families. These different villages come together to create a good combination of both public and private life. This is a sharp criticism of the argument Plato makes in The Republic.  Aristotle goes on to argue that a city naturally â€Å"arises from [the union of] several villages† (Aristotle, 36). In saying this, he argues that a city exists by nature (Aristotle, 37). A city forms for the purpose of living well and directs itself toward the common good. One of Aristotle’s defining arguments is that â€Å"man is by nature a political animal† (Aristotle, 37). What Aristotle is arguing is that apart from the city there is no possible way for man to achieve the good life. Aristotle claims that what makes man different from other animals are that â€Å"man alone has speech† (Aristotle, 37). It is speech that makes possible the deliberation of politics and allows man to come up with the highest authoritative good. According to Aristotle, â€Å"speech serves to reveal the advantageous and the harmful, and hence also the just and the unjust† (Aristotle, 37). In Aristotle’s city, it is speech and deliberation that justice can be found. Aristotle believes that the law developed through deliberation is â€Å"a guarantor of just things† (Aristotle, 98). In order to define what he believes to be a citizen, Aristotle first argues things that do not imply citizenship: honorary citizenship, inhabiting a place, sharing in matters of justice, children, and the elderly (Aristotle, 86). He defines citizenship as â€Å"sharing in decision and in office† (Aristotle, 87). According to Aristotle, a citizen is one who takes part in the decisions that are being made. In Aristotle’s city, the citizen is â€Å"whoever is entitled to participate† (Aristotle, 87). To him, the most important aspect of citizenship is that they are the foundation upon which the city is built. He believes that citizens have a share in the regime and should take part in administrating justice. In general, â€Å"a citizen is defined as a person from parents who are both citizens† (Aristotle, 88). Aristotle believes that as constitutions change, citizenship changes as well. Thus, there is different criterion for being a good citizen and being a good man. According to Aristotle, a good citizen upholds and respects the constitution. He claims, â€Å"a good citizen should know and have the capacity both to be ruled and to rule† (Aristotle, 92). In the Republic, Socrates gives three waves that he believes are necessary to  achieve justice in an unhealthy city. The first wave states that there should be equality among men and women of the Guardian class. He writes that men and women of the Guardian class are to share â€Å"everything in common† (Plato, 130). This wave not only deals with equality, it also deals with merit. Despite the fact that men are typically stronger than women, women should be nurtured in the same way as men and educated in the same things. Even though it may seem â€Å"shameful and ridiculous†, women are to be trained in gymnastics together with men (Plato, 130). After establishing the need for equality among men and women, Socrates moves on to the second wave. The second wave, Socrates argues, is that women and children need to be held in common. He believes that â€Å"women are to belong to men in common† and that â€Å"no woman can live privately with any man† (Plato, 136). Socrates is trying to rid the unhealthy city of private life because he believes that justice is social. The Guardians must live as one single family in order to reduce factional conflict. In order for the Guardians to live as one single family, Socrates argues that not only are men and women to be held in common, their children are to be held in common as well. â€Å"A parent will neither know his own offspring, nor a child his parent† (Plato, 136). The goal of this is to, again, rid them of the jealousies and rivalries that accompany private families. Socrates believes that this will make certain greater social equality and increase the unity among the Guardian class. Because the Guardians share everything in common, there will no longer be any concept of private ownership. Thus, there will be harmony and unity within the city. The third, and final, wave Socrates discuses details who it is that he believes should rule in a just city. The third and final wave that Socrates believes is necessary for justice is that philosophers must be the rulers. After making this argument, Glaucon demands that Socrates defines what he means as a philosopher. Socrates believes that â€Å"the philosopher is a desirer of wisdom, not of one part and not another, but of all of it† (Plato, 155). The philosopher is a lover of wisdom and total knowledge. Because of this, Socrates argues that philosophers are the only people capable of having knowledge of everything all together; they are open-minded and constantly curious. To further his  argument about the philosopher, Socrates states that the philosopher is a lover of the truth; he has knowledge of what is real instead of simply believing in appearances. The first proposal that Socrates makes in The Republic makes sense to me. There should be equality among men and women, but they do not need to share everything is common. There needs to be a balance of both public and private life. It would not make sense to rid society of private life entirely. The second proposal that Socrates makes does not make much sense at all; it would not work if we wanted to enact a similar system in today’s society. It is not logical to think that children would be better people and that society would be a better place if children were taken from their mothers at birth and raised by wet nurses. People need the bond of a private family, it is from family that children learn to love and be loved. The philosophers-as-rulers proposal that Socrates discusses makes sense but it seems extremely unrealistic. A philosopher is the last person that would want to rule a city. Overall, these proposals would every facet of a city. The proposals that he makes are intended to be extreme and ironic. Plato is trying to push his readers in absurd directions in order to establish that justice will never be found. The healthy city in Plato’s The Republic gives the best definition of justice. The whole intention of creating this ideal city is to define what justice is. Essentially, in his ideal city, there is no injustice. Because Plato uses his ideal state to show how justice and injustice naturally arise in cities, it is much easier to grasp what justice is and how it comes into being. Because Plato creates the perfect government, he is able to give a clear definition of what justice is. Aristotle’s definition of distributive justice: giving equal things to equal people and unequal things to unequal people can be confusing. While the healthy city may give the best definition of justice, it does not provide the best model for politics. Though it may not be ideal, Aristotle’s ideal city provides the best model for politics. In Aristotle’s view politics is only a means to an end; that end being the maximum happiness of its citizens. Unlike Plato, who places the burden of  ruling solely in the Guardian class, Aristotle believes that everyone should take turn ruling and being ruled (Aristotle, 219). Aristotle argues that the purpose of politics and that city is to promote the good life for its people. He believes that the citizens of a state should agree about what is right and wrong, just and unjust. Plato believes that philosophers are the only people capable of knowing the truth. Aristotle gives a better argument that everyone is capable of knowing the truth. He believes that politics is responsible for educating men in what is right and wrong. Just as Aristotle argues, written law should have greater authority than the rulers. Thus, leading to justice. Both Plato and Aristotle make good arguments about political justice even though the two do not completely agree. By creating an ideal city, Plato clearly defines what justice is. On the other hand, by looking at existing cities, Aristotle gives a good model for politics. While their ideas about politics and justice were different, they both strived to find a better way of life for society and hoped to achieve political justice. Bibliography Aristotle, The Politics. Translated with an introduction by Carnes Lord. (Chicago, 1984). Plato (380 B.C.). Republic, translated by G. M. A. Grube, 2 nd ed., revised by C. D. C. Reeve, Indianapolis: Hackett (1992).